A Short Account of Psychoanalysis - Freud, Sigmund

A SHORT ACCOUNT OF PSYCHO-ANALYSIS By Sigmund Freud I Psycho-analysis grew up in a narrowly-restricted field. At the outset, it had only a single aim - that of understanding something of the nature of what were known as the ’functionalÄ™ nervous diseases, with a view to overcoming the impotence which had so far characterized their medical treatment. The neurologists of that period had been brought up to have a high respect for chemico-physical and pathologicoanatomical facts; and they were latterly under the influence of the findings of Hitzig and Fritsch, of Ferrier, Goltz and others, who seemed to have established an intimate and possibly exclusive connection between certain functions and particular parts of the brain. They did not know†¦show more content†¦Charcot himself made no further efforts towards a psychological understanding of hysteria; but his pupil, Pierre Janet, took up the question and was able to show, with the help of hypnosis, that the symptoms o f hysteria were firmly dependent on certain unconscious thoughts (id ´ es fixes). Janet attributed to hysteria a supposed constitutional incapacity for holding mental processes together - an incapacity which led to a disintegration (dissociation) of mental life. Psycho-analysis, however, was not in any way based on these researches of JanetÄ™s. The decisive factor in its case was the experience of a Viennese physician, Dr. Josef Breuer. In 1881, independently of any outside influence, he was able with the help of hypnosis to study and restore to health a highly-gifted girl who suffered from hysteria. BreuerÄ™s findings were not given to the public until fifteen years later, after he had taken the present writer (Freud) into collaboration. This case of BreuerÄ™s retains its unique significance for our understanding of the neuroses to this day; so that we cannot avoid dwelling on it a little longer. It is essential to realize clearly in what its peculiarity consisted. The g irl had fallen ill while she was nursing her father, to whom she was tenderly attached. Breuer was able to establish that all her symptoms were related to this period of nursing and could be explained by it. Thus it had for the first time become possible to obtain a complete view of a case ofShow MoreRelated Freud’s Structure of the Mind Essay754 Words   |  4 PagesFreud’s Structure of the Mind At the age of 40 in 1896, Sigmund Freud introduced the world to a new term- psychoanalysis (Gay 1). Psychoanalysis is a method of treating patients with different nervous problems by involving them in dialogues which provide the physician with insight into the individual’s psyche. 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Samenvatting Managerial Economics Free Essays

string(135) " country or foreign E-commerce Limitations: \* Payments system Trade barriers \* Shipment costs part 1: competitive markets chapter 2\." chapter 1. introduction to managerial economics 1. what is managerial economics? Managerial economics = the science of directing scarce resources to manage effectively each needs to understand how they can influence the demand through price and advertising, what is the best organizational architecture and how to compete Differences between ‘new’ and ‘old’ economy * Network effects in demand = the benefit provided to any user depends on the total number of other users * Scalability = the degree to which the scale and scope of business can be increased without a corresponding increase in costs Public good = one person’s consumption does not reduce the quantity available to others Branches Managerial economics: * Competitive markets * Market power * Imperfect markets 2. We will write a custom essay sample on Samenvatting Managerial Economics or any similar topic only for you Order Now preliminaries scope (omvang) Microeconomics = the study of individual economic behavior where resources are costly how consumers respond to changes in prices and income, †¦ Managerial economics more limited scope = it is the application of microeconomics to managerial issues Macroeconomics = focuses on aggregate economic variables considers economic aggregates directly rather than as the aggregation of individual consumers and businesses methodology Fundamental premise = individuals share common motivations that lead them to behave systematically in making economic choices a person who faces the same choices at two different times will behave in the same way at both times it is systematic so it can be studied Economic model = a concise description of behavior and outcomes = abstraction Models are constructed by inductive reasoning afterwards, the model should be tested arginal vis-a-vis average Marginal value = the change in the variable associated with a unit increase in a driver Average value = total value of the variable divided by the total quantity of a driver relation between the marginal and average values depends on whether the average value is decreasing, constant or increasing with respect to the driver Stocks and flows Stock = quantity at a specific point in time Flow = the change in a stock over some period of time measured in units per time period other things equal = an approach to simplify the problem by analyzing each change separately, holding other things equal . timing Two types of models * Static models = describe behavior at a single point of time, disregard differences in the sequences of actions and payments model of competitive markets, analysis of organizational architecture * Dynamic models = focus on the timing and sequence of actions and payments = receipts and expenditures often occur at different times discounting Investments = using resources at some times in order to receive benefits at other times discount future v alues to that they can be compared with the present Net present value the sum of the discounted values of a series of inflows and outflows over time = represents the current valuation of a flow of dollars time Internal rate of return = alternative for the net present value without using the discount rate 4. organization organizational boundaries Vertical boundaries = delineates activities closer to or further from the end user Horizontal boundaries = defined by its scale and scope of operations * Scale = rate of production or delivery of a good or service * Scope = refers to the range of different items produced or delivered individual behavior businesses are managed by individuals and their interests may diverge from those of the organization managers are subject to bounded rationality Standard assumption = people make decisions rationally = individuals choose the alternative that gives them the greatest difference between value and cost their behavior will follow some predictabl e patterns based on what they judge to be in their best interest People do not always behave rationally reason: bounded rationality = people have limited cognitive bilities and cannot fully exercise self-control = people adopt simplified rules for decision-making * Separate accounting for different categories of benefits and cost * Lack self-control = addictive behavior and difficulty postponing immediate gratification for longer-term benefits. * More sensitive to loss than to gain = risk averse * Decisions may depend on how choices are framed Two implications: * Individuals will be relatively sluggish in responding to changes in business and economic conditions * Role for managerial economics is larger . markets Market = consists of the buyers and sellers that communicate with one another for voluntary exchange not limited to any physical structure of particular location * Markets for consumer products = buyers are households and sellers are businesses * Markets for industrial pr oducts = buyers and sellers are businesses * Markets for human resources = buyers are businesses and sellers are households Industry = businesses engaged in the production of delivery of the same or similar items competitive markets = markets with many buyers and many sellers Buyers provide the demand and sellers provide the supply demand-supply model = describes the systematic effect of changes in prices and other economic variables on buyers and sellers describes the interaction of these choices market power Key variables: * Prices * Scale of operations * Input mix = determined by market forces Market power = ability of a buyer or seller to influence market conditions A business with market power must determine its horizontal boundaries = depends on how its costs vary with the scale and scope of operations Four key tools in managing demand: 1. Price 2. Advertising 3. Policy toward competitors 4. RD expenditure Imperfect markets Imperfect Market = when one party directly conveys a benefit or cost to others and where one party has better information than others managers need to resolve the imperfection 6. global integration Price in one local market will be independent of prices in other local markets some markets are global because the costs of communication and trade are relatively low = the prince in one place will move together with the prices elsewhere whether a market is local or global, same managerial economics principles ommunications costs and trade = with developments in technology and deregulation Transport: * air transport liberalization * containerization of surface transport. Telecommunications: * de-regulation. * scale economies in bandwidth. Growth of cross-border trade and investment: * falling trade barriers. * falling financial barriers. * falling communications cost managers have to pay increasing attention to markets in oth er places outsoarcing = the purchase of services or supplies from external sources external sources could be within the same country or foreign E-commerce Limitations: * Payments system Trade barriers * Shipment costs part 1: competitive markets chapter 2. You read "Samenvatting Managerial Economics" in category "Papers" demand 2. individual demand Individual demand curve = a graph that shows the quantity that the buyer will purchase at every possible price construction = other things equal, how many would you buy at a price of – – ? important to keep other things equal there the decision may depend on other factors * Vertical axis is the price * Horizontal axis is the quantity Two views: * For every possible price, demand curve shows the quantity demanded * For each unit of item, demand curve shows the maximum price that the buyer is willing to pay slope at a lower price, buyers are willing to buy a larger quantity Marginal benefit = the benefit provided by an addit ional unit of the item Diminishing marginal benefit = each additional unit of consumption or usage provides less benefit than the preceding unit the price that an individual is willing to pay will decrease with the quantity purchased preferences Two implications: * The demand curve will change with changes in the consumer’s preferences * Different consumers may have different preferences and hence different demand curves 3. emand and income Demand curve does not explicitly display the effect of changes in income and other factors that affect demand income changes = effect of a change in income on the demand curve is very different from that of a change in price if income drops = demand curve shifts to the left * Change in price = movement along the demand curve * Change in income or any factor other than the price = shift in the entire demand curve normal vis-a-vis inferior products Normal product = positively related to changes in the buyer’s income Inferior product negatively related to changes in the buyer’s income demand falls as the buyer’s income increases Broad categories of products = tend to be normal Particular products within the categories = may be inferior 4. other factors in demand = prices of related products, advertising, durability, season, weather and location complements and substitutes Complements = if an increase in the price of one causes the demand for the other to fall Substitutes = if an increase in the price of one causes the demand for the other to increase Shift to the left: * Increase in the price of a complement * Fall in the price of a substitute Shift to the right * Increase in the price of a substitute * Fall in the price of a complement advertising Informative advertising = communicates information to potential buyers and sellers Persuasive advertising = aims to influence consumer choice An increase in advertising expenditure will increase demand each additional dollar spent on advertising has a relatively smaller effect on demand = diminishing marginal product Effect of advertising on demand depends on the medium durable goods = provide a stream of services over an extended period of time buyers have discretion over the timing of purchase Three significant factors for demand: 1. Expectations about future prices and incomes 2. Interest rates = many buyers need to finance their purchase of durable goods if interest rates are low the demand for durables will be higher 3. Price of used models = substitutes of a new model 5. market demand Market demand curve graph that shows the quantity that all buyers will purchase at every possible price = analysis is essentially similar to that for an individual demand curve construction = interview all the potential consumers and ask each person the quantity that he er she would buy at every possible price = horizontal summation of the individual demand curves = slopes downwards since the individual demand curves slope downwards other factors = buyers’ income, price of related products, advertisin g changes in these factors will shift the entire market demand curve Two ways of measuring income of country: * The gross national product (GNP) = GDP + net income from foreign sources * The gross domestic product (GDP) = measure the total amount produced in a country for a given year Macro factors: * Income = average, distribution * Demographic = population, age structure, urban-rural * Cultural-social income distribution = the more uneven the distribution of income, the more important it is to consider the actual distribution of in income and not merely the average income when estimating the market demand 6. buyer surplus benefit Marginal benefit maximum amount of money that the buyer is willing to pay for the unit Total benefit = benefit yielded by all the units that the buyer purchases benefit vias-a-vis price Buyer surplus = difference between a buyer’s total benefit from some quantity of purchase and the actual expenditure a buyer must get some surplus, otherwise he or she will not buy = maximum that a seller can charge is the buyer†™s total benefit price changes Gains from a pricecut: * Lower price on the quantity that she would have purchased at the original price = infra marginal units She can buy more = marginal units extent depends on the buyer’s response to the price reduction = the greater the increase in purchase, the larger the buyer’s gain from the price reduction = when you have to calculate how much you gain from a price cut, always look at the demand curve and see how much you buy at the old price and how much at the new price and calculate the buyers surplus package deals and two-part pricing Package deals = charge buyer just a little less than her/his total benefit = leave buyer with almost zero surplus Two-art pricing = pricing scheme comprising a fixed payment and a charge based on usage = enables to soak up most of the consumer’s buyer surplus Market buyer surplus = sum of individual buyer surpluses 7. business demand inputs Businesses do not purchase goods and services for their own sake use them as inputs in the production of other goods and services = use inputs to produce outputs for sale to consumers or other businesses * finished/semi-finished components –. * raw materials and energy. * labor and other services. capital. Demand Demand for inputs depend on: * quantity of final output = shift of the entire demand curve * prices of complements or substitutes in production Marginal benefit = the increase in revenue arising from an additional unit of the input diminishing marginal benefit = downward sloping demand curve for inputs chapter 3. elasticity 1. introduction Elesticity of demand = measures the responsiveness of demand to changes in an underlying factor (price, income, advertising) Own-price elasticity of demand measures the responsiveness of the quantity demanded to changes in the price of the item 2. own-price elasticity = percentage by which the quantity demanded will change if the price of the item rises by 1% Percentage change in quantity demanded Percentage change in price construction Two ways of deriving: * arc approach = we collect records of a price change and the corresponding change in quantity demanded own-price elasticity as the ratio of the proportionate change in quantity demanded to the proportionate change in price can also be calculated by changing p0 by the average price ((old price + new price)/2) and by changing q0 by the average quantity ((old quantity + new quantity)/2) * point approach = can be derived from the coefficient of price in the equation = calculates the elasticity at a specific point on the demand curve – arc approach: elasticity between two points properties Characteristics: * It’ s a negative number * A pure number, independent of units of measure * Ranges from 0 to negative infinity Price elastic if a 1% increase in price leads to more than a 1% drop in quantity demand = if a price increase causes a proportionately larger drop in quantity demanded Price inelastic = if a 1% price increase causes less than 1% drop in quantity demand intuitive factors Availability of direct or indirect substitutes = the fewer substitutes that are available, the less elastic will be the demand Demand for a product category will be relatively less elastic than demand for specific products within the category = there are fewer substitutes for the category than for specific products Buyer’s prior commitments Learning * Complementary purchases (spare parts, upgrades, †¦) * Taste = demand less elastic Benefits/costs of economizing = buyers have limited time to spend on searching for better prices they focus attention on items that account for relatively larger expendit ures separation of buyer and payee elasticity and slope Own price elasticity = describes the shape of only one portion of the demand curve a change in price, by moving from one part of a demand curve to another part, may lead to a change in own-price elasticity Straight line demand curve demand becomes more elastic at higher prices incase of other shapes, demand may become less elastic at higher prices Steeper demand curve means demand less elastic = but elasticity is not the same as the slope slope stays the same, the own-price elasticity varies throughout the length causes by the changes in price and quantity Own-price elasticity can also vary with changes in any of the other factors that affect demand = in that case, demand curve will shift own-price elasticity may also change 3. forecasting quantity demanded and expenditure expenditure change in price will affect expenditure through the price itself as well as through the related effect on quantity demanded Change in quanti ty demanded = price elasticity x change in price If demand elastic, price increase leads to * proportionately greater reduction in purchases. * lower expenditure. If demand inelastic, price increase leads to * proportionately smaller reduction in purchases. * higher expenditure. accuracy Discrepancy = the own-price elasticity may vary along a demand curve the forecast using the own-price elasticity will not be as precise as a forecast directly from the demand curve . other elasticities income elasticity = measures the sensitivity of demand to changes in buyers’ income = percentage by which the demand will change if the buyer’s income rises by 1 % Percentage change in demand percentage change in income = varies with changes in the price and any other factor that affects demand * Depending on whether the product is normal or inferior, income elasticity can be positive or negative * Demand for necessities tends to be relatively less income elastic than the demand for dis cretionary items cross-price elasticity measures the sensitivity of demand to changes in the prices of related products = percentage by which the demand will change if the price of the other item rises by 1%, other things equal Substitutes = an increase in the price of one will increase the demand for the other = cross-price elasticity positive Complements = an increase in the price of one will reduce the demand for the other = cross-price elasticity negative advertising elasticity measures the sensitivity of demand to changes in the sellers’ advertising expenditure = percentage by which the demand will change if the sellers’ advertising expenditure rises by 1%, other things equal price of the item must remain unchanged has a much stronger effect on the sales of an individual seller than on the market demand = advertising elasticity of the demand faced by an individual seller tends to be larger than the advertising elasticity of the market demand forecasting the effe cts of multiple factors Only way to discern the net effect of factors pushing in different directions = use the elasticities with respect to each of the variables Percentage change in demand due to changes in multiple factors is the sum of the percentage changes due to each separate factor 5. adjustment time The short run = a time horizon within which a buyer cannot adjust at least one item of consumption or usage The long run = a time horizon long enough for buyers to adjust all items of consumption of usage nondurables the longer the time that buyers have to adjust, the bigger will be the response to a price change demand for such items will be more elastic in the long run than in the short run Alcohol and tabacco = demand relatively inelastic discouraging new people from taking up smoking and drinking = demand relatively more elastic in the long run durables = a countervailing effect leads demand to be relatively more elastic in the short run especially strong for changes in income = drop in income wi ll cause demand to fall more sharply in the short run than in the long run Difference between short- and long-run elasticities = depends on a balance between the need for time to adjust and the replacement frequency effect 6. estimating elasticities data Two sources of data: * Records of pas experiences * Surveys and experiments specifically designed to discover buyers’ preferences test market Collection in two ways: * Focus on a particular group of buyers and observe how their demand changes as the factors affecting demand vary over time = time series Compare the quantities purchased in markets with different values of the factors affecting demand = cross section specification To obtain accurate estimates of elasticities = specify all the factors that have a significant effect on demand specify the mathematical relationship between demand and the various factors Dependent variable = whose changes are to be explained Independent variable = a factor affecting the dependent variable = linear equation in which the dependent variable is equal to a cons tant plus the weighted sum of the independent variables ultiple regression = can estimate the separate effect of each independent variable on the dependent variable = aims to determine values for the constant and the coefficients Residual = the actual value of the dependent variable minus the predicted value Method of least squares = based on the view that positive residuals are as bad as negative residuals while large residuals are disproportionately bad seeks a set of estimates for the constant and the coefficients to minimize the sum of the squares of the residuals since equally large positive and negative residuals have identical squares, the method treats them identically statistical significance F statistic = measures the overall significance of the independent variables assumption that there are is no relationship between the dependent variable and the set of independent variables ranges from 0 to infinity R? = uses the squared residuals to measure the extent to which the independent variables account for the variation of the dependent variable ranges from 0 to 1 1 means that all the residuals are exactly 0 T-statistic = used to evaluate the significance of a particular independent variable = estimated value of the coefficient divided by the standard error ranges from negative to positive infinity P value = measures the likelihood that estimated coefficient could be the result of chance under the assumption that the true coefficient is zero = gives the probability that random sampling errors could produce a coefficient as large as found by the least-squares multiple regression model chapter 4. supply . short-run costs Two key decisions: * Continue in operation * Rate at which to operate = depend on the length of the time horizon Short run = time horizon in which a seller cannot adjust at least one input business must work within the constraints of past commitments Long run = time horizon long enough for the seller to adjust all inputs Difference b etween both depends on the circumstances fixed vis-a-vis variable costs Fixed cost = cost of inputs that do not change with the production rate the height of the total cost curve at the zero production rate Variable cost cost of inputs that change with the production rate to distinguish between fixed and variable costs, a business must analyze how each category of expense varies with changes in the scale of operation Total cost = the sum of fixed cost and variable cost C = F + V Marginal cost = the change in total cost due to the production of an additional unit Average cost = total cost divided by the production rate = unit cost Cq = Fq + Vq continues to fall with increases in the production rate until it reaches a minimum, thereafter it increases with the production rate the average cost is the average fixed cost plus the average variable cost if the production rate is higher the fixed cost will be spread over more units Marginal product = increase in output arising from an ad ditional unit of an input diminishing = the average variable cost will increase with the production rate Where the average variable cost is increasing the relationship between the average cost and the production rate depends on the balance between the declining average fixed cost and the increasing average cost Diminishing marginal product causes marginal and average cost to rise echnology Two implications: * The curves will change with adjustments in the seller’s technology * Different sellers may have different technologies and hence different cost curves 3. short-run individual supply Assumptions * profit maximization * Business is so small relative to the market that it can sell as much as it would like at the going market price production rate Total revenue = price multiplied by sales Marginal revenue = the change in total revenue arising from selling an additional unit To maximize profit, a business should produce at that rate where its marginal revenue equals its marg inal cost Marginal revenue is represented by the slope of the total revenue line * Wherever the marginal revenue exceeds the marginal cost, the profit can be raised by increasing production * Wherever the marginal revenue is less than the marginal cost, Luna can raise profit by reducing production break even To decide whether to continue production, the business needs to compare the profit from continuing in production with the profit of shutting down Fixed cost = sunk cost = it has been committed and cannot be avoided even if the business shuts down, it must still pay the fixed cost F Business should continue production when R – V – F – F = R V P V/q R = p x q = short-run break even condition a business maximizes profit by producing at the rate where the marginal cost equals the price, provided that the price covers the average variable cost individual supply curve Individual supply curve = a graph showing the quantity that one seller will supply at every possible price for every possible price, a business should produce at the rate that balances it marginal cost with the price Slopes upward = if the seller is to expand production, then it will incur a higher marginal cost Input demand Change in input price: * Shift in marginal cost * Change in profit-maximizing production 4. long-run individual supply = contracts expire and investments wear out all inputs become avoidable long-run costs = long-run average cost curve is lower and has a gentler slope in the long run, the seller has more flexibility in adjusting inputs to changes in the production rate = it can produce at a relatively lower cost than in the short run, when one or more inputs cannot be changed production rate = a rate where its marginal cost equals the price of its output reak even = in the long run, a business should continue in production if the maximum profit from continuing in production is at least as large as the profit from shutting down All costs are avoidable = it the business shuts down, it will incur no costs and so its profit from shutting down is nothing R C P C/q = business should continue in production so long as total revenue covers total cost individual supply curve = that part of its long-run marginal cost curve, which lies above its long-run average cost curve Two views: * For every possible price, it shows the production rate For each unit of item, it shows the minimum price that the seller is willing to accept 5. market supply Market supply curve = a graph showing the quantity that the market will supply at every possible price = sum of the quantities supplied by each individual seller short run Market supply curve = begins with the seller that has the lowest average variable cost Change in an input price will affect the seller’s marginal cost at all production levels shift the entire market supply curve * Increase in price of an input will shift the market supply up * Reduction in price of an input will shift the market supply down long run every business will have completely flexibility in deciding on inputs and production freedom of entry and exit is the key difference between the short run and long run Sellers that cannot cover their total c osts will leave the industry until all the remaining sellers break even an industry where businesses van make profits will attract new entrants = market supply will rise and pushes down the market price hence the profit will drop Quantity supplied will adjust in two ways when there’s a change in price: * All existing sellers will adjust their quantities supplied along their individual supply curves * Some sellers may enter or leave the market Graph = slope is more gentler and may be flat 6. seller surplus price vis-a-vis marginal cost Seller surplus difference between a seller’s revenue from some quantity of production and the minimum amount necessary to induce the seller to produce that quantity short-run seller surplus can also be defined as the difference between the seller’s revenue and the variable cost Short-run seller surplus = total revenue less variable cost Long-run seller surplus = total revenue less total cost purchasing = a buyer can apply the con cept of seller surplus to reduce the cost of its purchases market seller surplus = sum of the individual seller surpluses = difference between the market revenue from some production rate and the minimum amount necessary for the market to produce that quantity 7. elasticity of supply measures the responsiveness of supply to changes in underlying factors such as the price of the item and inputs price elasticity = measures the responsiveness of the quantity supplied to changes in the price of the item = percentage by which the quantity supplied will change if the price of the item rises by 1%, other things equal Percentage change in quantity supplied Percentage change in price properties * Pure number * Positive number intuitive factors Intuitive factors: * Capacity utilization a seller that has consiverable excess capacity will step up production in response to even a small increase in price = individual supply will be relatively elastic * Adjustment time long-run supply is relative ly more elastic than the short-run supply chapter 5. competitive markets 2. perfect competition Five conditions: 1. The product is homogeneous 2. There are many buyers, each of whom purchases a quantity that is small relative to the market 3. There many sellers, each of whom supplies a quantity that is small relative to the market 4. New buyers and sellers can enter freely, and existing buyers and sellers can exit freely 5. All buyers and sellers have symmetric information about market conditions homogeneous product = the product is always the same competition is stronger many small buyers = no buyer can get a lower price than others all buyers face the same price all buyers compete on the same level playing field When some buyers have market power it is not possible to construct a market demand curve many small sellers = no seller has market power no seller can get a higher price than other free entry and exit = no technological, legal or regulatory barriers constrain entry or e xit the market price cannot stay above a seller’s average cost for very long degree of competition also depends on barriers to exit = it must consider the exit cost when deciding whether to enter the market symmetric information = no seller can enjoy the privilege of secret information 3. market equilibrium the price at which the quantity demanded equals the quantity supplied when market out of equilibrium, market forces pushes price towards equilibrium demand and supply At the market equilibrium, there is no tendency for price, purchases or sales to change excess supply Not in equilibrium = market price will tend to change in such a way as to restore equilibrium Excess supply = the amount by which the quantity supplied exceeds the quantity demanded suppliers would compete to clear their extra capacity and the market price would drop back toward the equilibrium excess demand = the amount by which the quantity demanded exceeds the quantity supplied when the price is below the equilibrium level buyers would compete for the limited capacity significance of equilibrium Two reasons: * If a market is not in equilibrium, either buyers or sellers will push the market toward equilibrium * By comparing equilibria we can address a wide range of questions when prices are quite flexible, the market will adjust to the new equilibrium fairly quickly, so comparing equilibria is a fairly accurate method of analysis Neither buyers nor sellers may face rationing 4. supply shift equilibrium change When price of input falls entire supply curve shifts down = at every possible sellers want to supply more price elasticities Downward or upward shift in the supply curve will change the equilibrium price by no more than the amount of the supply shift change in equilibrium price depends on the price elasticities of demand and supply Inelastic demand = buyers are completely insensitive to the price when supply curve shifts, the buyers do not change their behavior = they continue to purchase exactly the same quantity Elastic demand = buyers are extremely sensitive to price equilibrium price does not change at all If the demand is more elastic then the change in the equilibrium price result from a shift in supply will be smaller Inelastic supply = sellers are completely insensitive to the price if their costs change they will not change the quantity supplied Elastic supply if the cost of an input changes, the marginal cost changes by the same amount at all production levels common misconception = if sellers’ costs fall by some amount, then the market price will fall by the same amount Overlooks the impact of: * The shift in supply on buyers = if they are very sensitive to price, the shift in supply would result in no change to the equilibrium price * The price sensitivity of sellers = if sellers are insensitive to price, then the drop in cost will not induce them to sell more Price change * Smaller if demand is more elastic than supply * Bigger if supply is more elastic than demand 5. demand shift Demand shifts down (left) new equilibrium with lower price and lower quantity Demand shifts up (right) new equilibrium with higher price and higher quantity 6. adjustment time short-run equilibrium = point where its short-run marginal cost equals the marketprice long-run equilibrium = the point where its long-run marginal cost equals the market price demand increase Short-run equilibrium = the extent to which a seller expands its operations depends on the slope of its short-run marginal cost curve if steep then the price increase will not lead the seller to expand operations by very much Long-run equilibrium = there is enough time for all costs to become avoidable, for new sellers to enter the market and for existing sellers to leave The increase in demand raises the market price and hence each seller’s profit = will attract new sellers to enter the market Although the price is higher than in the original equilibrium, higher input prices result in higher marginal and average cost curves in the new long-run equilibrium, each individual seller just breaks even demand reduction Extent of cutback depends on two factors: * Extent of sunk costs = in an industry involving substantial sunk costs, the reduction in demand will translate into a relatively large drop in price and a small reduction in quantity * Slope of the seller’s short-run marginal cost curve in the new long-run equilibrium there will be a smaller number of sellers and each will exactly break even with average total costs equal to the market price price and quantity over time Two general points: * In response to shifts in demand = market price will be more volatile in the short run than the long run * In response to shifts in demand = there is a greater change in the market quantity over the long run than in the hort run In industries with substantial sunk costs the adjustment of production will be concentrated in the long run In industries where costs are minor the adjustment to shifts in demand will be relatively smoother the market price will be relatively less volatile chapter 6. conomic efficiency 2. conditions for economic efficiency Economically efficient = if no reallocation of resources can make one person better off without making another person worse off persons may be human beings or businesses sufficient conditions Three sufficient conditions based on users’ benefits and supplier’s costs 1. All users achieve the same marginal benefit 2. All suppliers operate at the same marginal cost 3. Every user’s marginal benefit is equal to every supplier’s marginal cost Equal marginal benefit If not equal: * Provide more to user with higher marginal benefit * Take away from user with low er marginal benefit society as a whole would be better off Equal marginal cost If not equal: * Supplier with lower marginal cost should produce more * Supplier with higher marginal cost should produce less Marginal benefit equals marginal cost If not equal: * If MO MC , produce more of the item * If MO MC, produce less of the item philosophical basis Technical efficiency = providing an item at the minimum possible cost does not imply that scarce resources are being well used The concept of economic efficiency extends beyond technical efficiency Economic efficiency assesses resource allocations in terms of each individual user’s evaluation of the benefit internal organization production will be efficient if all users achieve the same marginal benefit, all suppliers operate at the same marginal cost and every user’s marginal benefit balances every supplier’s marginal cost 3. adam smith’s invisible hand Invisible hand = market price guides buyers and sell ers, acting independently and selfishly to channel scarce resources into economically efficient uses competitive market = satisfies all three requirements for economic efficiency market system = an economic system in which resources are allocated through the independent decisions of buyers and sellers, guided by freely moving prices Price performs two roles: * It communicates all the necessary information It provides a concrete incentive for each buyer to purchase the quantity that balances marginal benefit with the market price it provides a concrete incentive for every seller to supply the quantity that balances marginal cost with the market price 4. decentralized management internal market Transfer price = price charged for the sale of an item within an organization should set it equal to market price = by decentralizing the management is establishing an internal market that is integrated with the external market implementation Two general rules: * If there is a competitive mar ket for the item, the transfer price should be set equal to the market price * Producing units should be allowed to sell the product outside buyers and consuming units should be allowed to buy the product from external sources Outsoarcing = purchase of services or supplies from external sources Any organization that used resources or products for which there are competitive markets can apply decentralization to achieve internal economic efficiency 5 incidence = both pricing methods have exactly the same impact on the manufacturer and customer freight inclusive pricing Cost and freight = a price that includes freight Ex-works pricing = does not include the freight cost entire supply supply curve will shift down = with ex-works demand, the buyers will now have to pay the freight cost price is lower = total price is equal if you increase the price with the freight cost Price and sales are the same whether the sellers do or do not include the freight cost in their prices incidence the change in the price for a buyer or seller resulting from a shift in demand or supply whether manufacturers set prices that do or do not include the feight cost, the incidence is the same = the incidence does not depend on which side initially pays the freight cost depends only on the price ela sticities of demand and supply taxes = government depend on tax revenues to support public services such as national defense, †¦ some are levied on consumers, others on businesses buyer’s vis-a-vis seller’s price Seller’s price = buyer’s price – tax Buyer’s price = price that buyers pay Seller’s price = price that sellers receive p156 tax incidence buyer’s price will rise by less than the amount of the tax and the seller’s price will drop by less than the amount of the tax tax is generally shared between buyers and sellers according to their relatively price elasticities * Less sensitive = will bear the relatively larger portion of the tax part II market power chapter 7. costs 2. economies of scale = analyze how costs depend on the scale or rate of production decision on scale also depends on market demand and competition Fixed cost = cost of inputs that do not change with the production rate Variable cost = cos t of inputs that change with the production rate marginal and average costs Marginal cost = rate of change of the variable cost if average variable cost remains constant, then the marginal cost will be the same Economies of scale = increasing returns to scale = a business for which the average cost decreases with the scale of production marginal cost will be lower than the average cost = since the marginal unit of production costs less than the average, any increase in production will reduce the average intuitive factors Two possible sources: * Substantial fixed inputs = at a larger scale, the cost of the fixed inputs will be spread over more units of production business with a strong element of composition, design or invention * If the average variable cost falls with the scale of production = whether the average variable cost increases or falls depends on the particular technology of the business diseconomies of scale = a business where the average cost increases with the scale of production If: * Fixed cost is not substantial * And variable cost rises m ore than proportionately with the scale of production strategic implications If economies of scope: * Large scale * Market concentrated, few suppliers * Monopoly and oligopoly If diseconomies of scope * Small scale * Market fragmented * Perfect competition 3. economies of scope if the total cost of production is lower when two products are produced together than when they are produced separately Diseconomies of scope = if the total cost of production is higher when two products are produced together joint cost = cost of inputs that do not change with the scope of production strategic implications Example: telecommunication and broadcasting Produce/deliver multiple products * Product mix * Brand extension Core competence = a generalized expertise in the design, production and marketing of products based on common or closely related technologies = joint cost diseconomies of scope = if the total cost of production is higher when the two items are produced together than when they are pr oduced separately arise where the joint costs are not significant and making one product increases the cost of making the other in the same facility 4. experience curve Accumulated experience = matters in industries characterized by relatively short production runs and a relatively substantial input of human resources As engineers and workers gain experience in production, they become more proficient individually and as a team they devise new ways to reduce cost, including better tools and more cost-effective procedures Experience curve = shows how the unit cost of production falls with cumulative production over time Distinguish from economies of scope within one production period Conditions: Relatively large human resources input per unit of production * Relatively small production runs 5. opportunity cost = it is necessary to look beyond the conventional accounting statements Relevance = key principle = managers should consider only relevant costs and ignore others alternative courses of action = to evaluate a business conventional income statement does not present the revenues and costs of the alternative courses of action = costs are actually higher because of the opportunity cost opportunity cost defined Opportunity cost = net revenue from the best alternative course of action uncovering relevant costs Two ways to uncover relevant costs: Consider the alternative courses of action * Use the concept of opportunity cost = both approaches lead to the same business decision Alternative courses of action and opportunity cists change with the circumstances and hence are more difficult to measure and verify opportunity cost of capital A business that is partly financed by debs will appear to be less profitable than an otherwise identical business that is completely financed by equity equity capital is not costless! = it has an opportunity cost Economic value added = net operation profit after tax subject to adjustments for accounting conventions less a charg e for the cost of capital they are less likely to be biased in favor of capitalintensive activities A complete measure of business e performance should take account of the opportunity cost of equity capital 6. transfer pricing Transfer price = transfer price of an internally produced input should be set equal to its marginal cost perfectly competitive market Transfer price = market price full capacity = marginal cost of the input is not well defined transfer price should be set equal to the opportunity cost of the input which is the marginal benefit that the input provides to the current user = compare marginal benefit across internal users 7. sunk costs a cost that has been committed and so cannot be avoided not relevant to business decisions alternative courses of action Depend on: * Prior commitments * Planning horizon Continue | Cancel | Cont. margin | $280,000 | $0 | Advert agency | $50,000 | $50,000 | Magazine | $250,000 | $50,000 | Profit | ($20,000) | ($100,000) | Continue | Cont. margin | $280,000 | Advert agency | $0 | Magazine | $200,000 | Profit | $80,000 | = only avoidable costs strategic implications = managers should ignore sunk costs and consider only avoidable costs sunk costs are not relevant for pricing, investment, or any other business decision Two ways of dealing with sunk costs: Explicitly consider the alternative courses of action * Remove all sunk costs from the income statement = both approaches lead to the same business decision it is easier to consider the alternative courses of action explicitly when multiple alternatives commitments and the planning horizon To identify sunk costs consider: * Past commitments * Planning horizon The longer the planning horizon, the more time there will be for past commitments to unwind and hence the greater will be management’s freedom of action Short-run planning horizon = some sunk costs Long-run horizon = no sunk cost Sunk vis-a-vis fixed costs Fixed cost two different senses: A cost t hat cannot be avoided once incurred * A cost of inputs that do not change with the production rate = two types of costs have very different implications for business decisions Not all sunk costs are fixed = cost op public service employees is sunk, once they secure tenure. However, government could have hired only temporary workers (no sunk costs) 8. statistical methods multipple regression = to investigate the extent of fixed costs and economies of scale forecasting = to forecast the dependent variable when the independent variables take different values Other applications Investigate the presence of joint costs across two products hapter 8. Monopoly 1. Introduction Monopoly = if there is only one seller in a market Monopsony = if there is only one buyer in a market 2. sources of market power = the barriers that deter or prevent entry by other competing sellers/buyers monopoly Unique resource = access to unique physical, natural or human resources Intellectual property = property o ver inventions or expressions Patent = gives the owner an exclusive right to the invention for a specified period of time Copyright = establishes property in published expressions, including computer software and engineering drawings Economies of scale and scope Product differentiation differentiating itself from competitors through product design, distribution, and advertising and promotion Regulation = government may decide to award an exclusive franchise to one provider government hopes to avoid duplication and reduce the cost of the service monopsy = same factors as a monopoly Additional reason for presence = existence of a monopoly a seller that has a monopoly over some good or service is also likely to have market power over the inputs into that item 3. Monopoly pricing Monopoly has to consider how its sales will affect the market price Given the market demand curve a monopoly can Set the price and let the market determine how much it will buy * Decide how much to sell and let he market determine the price at which it is willing to buy that quantity Monopoly is choosing a combination of price and sales off the demand curve a monopoly can set either the price or sales but not both revenue Inframarginal units = those other than the marginal unit Marginal revenue from selling an additional unit will be less than the price of that unit = marginal revenue is the price of the marginal unit minus the loss of revenue on the inframarginal units difference between the price and the marginal revenue depends on the price elasticity * Demand elastic = seller need not reduce the price very much to increase sales marginal revenue will be close to the price * Demand inelastic seller must reduce the price substantially to increase sales marginal revenue will be much lower than price Marginal revenue can be negative = if the loss of revenue on the inframarginal units exceeds the fain on the marginal unit Profit maximizing price Profit maximizing scale of operation = the scale at which the marginal revenue balances the marginal cost Contribution margin = total revenue less the variable cost a seller maximizes profit by operating at a scale where the sale of an additional unit will result in no change to the contribution margin economic inefficiency Marginal benefit exceeds the marginal cost 4. demand and cost changes Change in demand: * New marginal revenue * Original marginal cost = new profit-maximizing sales and price arginal cost change = change in price is less than change in marginal cost When there is a change in either demand or cost, the extent to which a monopoly should adjust its price depends on the shapes of both it marginal revenue and marginal cost curves it should adjust the price until its marginal revenue equals its marginal cost fixed cost change = profit-maximizing price and scale do not depend in any way on the fixed cost changes in the fixed cost will not affect the marginal cost curve If the fixed cost is so large tha t the total cost exceeds total revenue, then the monopoly will prefer to shut down 5. advertising Promotion the set of marketing activities that a business undertakes to communicate with its customers and sell its products advertising, sales promotion and public relations benefit of advertising Advertising can cause: * Shifting out the demand curve * Demand to be less elastic Benefit of advertising = change in the contribution margin Net benefit = the change in the contribution margin less the advertising expenditure advertise up to the point that the increase in contribution margin from an additional dollar of advertising is exactly 1 $ = more appropriate to consider the effect of advertising on the contribution margin generated by the product dvertising-sales ratio Incremental margin = price less the marginal cost = increase in the contribution margin from selling an additional unit, holding the price constant Incremental marginal percentage = ratio of the price less the margina l cost to the price measures the production of benefit by each dollar of advertising Advertising-sales ratio = incremental margin multiplied by the advertising elasticity of demand = says how much of the revenue should be invested in advertising 6. research and development = principles are the same as for advertising and promotion Benefit : * Shifting out the demand curve * Causing it to be less elastic Net benefit from RD = change in the contribution margin less the RD expenditure RD-sales ratio = incremental margin percentage multiplied by the RD elasticity of demand project evaluation = decisions on individual RD projects should account for the timing of costs and benefits p 212 7. Market structure effects of competition General points: * A monopoly restricts production below the competitive level and it can set a relatively higher price extracting larger profit * Profit of a monopoly exceeds what would be the combined profit of all the sellers if the same market were perfectly competitive potential competition Perfectly contestable a market in which sellers can entry and exit at no cost monopoly cannot raise price substantially above its long-run average cost depends on the extent of barriers to entry and exit lerner index = incremental margin percentage can be used to compare the degree of monopoly power in markets with different prices captures the impact of potential com petition (P – MC) / P Perfectly competitive market = lerner index equals 0 Monopoly = bigger than 0 Problem = it will not detect the power that a monopoly does not exercise 8. monopsy = buyer with market power restricts purchases to depress the price Trades off: * Marginal expenditure * Marginal benefit Marginal expenditure = change in expenditure resulting from an increase in purchases by one unit maximizing net benefit a monopsy will maximize its net benefit by purchasing the quantity at which its marginal benefit equals its marginal expenditure A monopsony restricts purchases to get a lower price and increase its net benefit above the competitive level chapter 9. Pricing 2. uniform pricing = policies where the seller charges the same price for every unit of the product price elasticity = percentage by which the quantity demanded will change if the price of the item rises by 1% Demand inelastic sales fall less than proportionately with the increase in price = total revenue will increase profit maximizing price Incremental margin percentage = – 1/price elasticity of demand demand and cost changes Pricing rule shows how a seller should adjust its price when there are changes in the price elasticity of demand or marginal cost a seller should not necessarily adjust the price by the same amount as a change in marginal cost common misconceptions * Contribution margin percentage = revenue less variable cost divided by revenue accounting systems often assume that costs are proportional = marginal cost is the same as the average variable cost = contribution margin percentage equals the incremental margin percentage * the belief that the profit maximizing price depends only on the elasticity = ignores costs * set the price by marking up average cost problems: * in economies of scale, the average cost depends on the production scale the need of an assumption about the scale sales and production scale depend on the price * it gives no guidance as to the appropriate mark-up on average cost Shortcomings: * leaves buyers with a lot of buyer’s surplus * does not sell to every pot ential buyer 3. complete price discrimination price discrimination = selling down the market demand curve = pricing policy under which a seller sets prices to earn different incremental margins on various units of the same or a similar product Complete price discrimination = a pricing policy where the seller prices each unit at the buyer’s benefit and sells a quantity such that the marginal benefit equals the marginal cost it charges every buyer the maximum that he or she is willing to pay for each unit comparison with uniform pricing resolves the two shortcomings of uniform pricing * no buyer’s surplus * economically efficient quantity information = to implement complete price discrimination, the seller must know each potential buyer’s individual demand curve not enough to know the market demand curve or the price elasticity of the individual demand curves 4. direct segment discrimination Segment = significant cohesive group of buyers within a large market ho mogenous segments Direct segment discrimination = the policy of setting different incremental margins to each identifiable segment heterogeneous segments Not enough information: * apply uniform pricing within each segment prices are such that the incremental margin percentage for each segment equals the reciprocal of the absolute value of the segment’s price elasticity of demand * apply indirect segment discrimination within each segment implementation Conditions: * To implement direct segment discrimination, the seller must identify and be able to use some identifiable and fixed buyer characteristic that segments the market otherwise buyer might switch segments * Seller must be able to prevent buyers from reselling the product among themselves = price discrimination is relatively more widespread in services than goods and is especially common in personal services Policy of direct segment discrimination prices should be set to derive a relatively lower incremental margin per centage from the segment with the more elastic demand and a relatively higher incremental margin percentage from the segment with the less elastic demand 5. location Seller can discriminate on the basis of the buyer’s location on two ways: * Free on board (FOB) = a common price to all buyers that does not include delivery the differences among the prices at various locations are exactly the differences in the costs of delivery to those locations * Ignores the differences between the price elasticities of demand in the various markets * Cost including freight = delivered pricing = set prices that include delivery the difference in the prices between the two market will simply be the result of the different incremental margin percentage and the different marginal costs of supplying the two markets A lower margin does not necessarily mean a lower price because there is a transportation cost restricitng resale = if the difference between the prices of a product between two marke ts exceeds the transportation cost, consumers might buy the item in one market and ship it to the other gray market = parallel importing 6. indirect segment discrimination = when seller may know that specific segments have different demand curves but cannot find a fixed characteristic with which to discriminate directly Indirect Segment discrimination policy of structuring a choice for buyers so as to earn different incremental margins from each segment voorbeeld p 244-245 implementation Two conditions: * Seller must have control over some variable to which buyers in the various segments are differentially sensitive * Buyers must not be able to circumvent the discriminating variable = seller cannot prevent buyers from reselling the product 7. bundling = combination of two or more products into one package with a single price pure bundling = a pricing policy that offers only a bundle and does not allow the alternative of buying the individual products = more profitable than uniform pricing but less than direct segment discrimination mixed bundling offers buyers a structured choice between the budle and the individual products = form of indirect segment discrimination implementation Three conditions to be effective: * Where there is substantial disparity among the segments in their benefits from the separate products * Where the benefits of the segments are negatively correlated in the sense that a product that is more beneficial to one segment provides relatively little benefit to another * Where the marginal cost of providing the product is low = when provision of the product involves a substantial marginal cost, a seller should consider mixed bundling 8. selecting the pricing policy Direct discrimination works through buyer attributes Indirect segment discrimination works through product attributes products under indirect discrimination may provide less benefit than those with direct segmentation indirect discrimination may involve relatively higher costs indirect discrimination relies on the various segments voluntarily identifying themselves through the structured choice cannibalization = when the sales of one product reduce the demand for another product with a higher incremental margin seller cannot discriminate directly and must rely on a structured choice of products to discriminate indirectly but discriminating variable does not perfectly separate the buyer segments Ways to mitigate cannibalization: * Product design * By controlling availability chapter 10. strategic thinking 1. introduction Strategy = a plan for action in a situation where the parties actively consider the interactions with one another in making decisions Game theory = a set of ideas and principles to guide strategic thinking * Simultaneous actions = strategic form * Sequential actions = extensive form 2. nash equilibrium = a framework for strategic decisions that must be taken simultaneously A strategy is dominated = if it generates worse consequences than some other strategy regardless of the other parties’ choice Game in strategic form a tabular representation of a strategic situation, showing one party’s strategies along the rows, the other party’s strategies along the How to cite Samenvatting Managerial Economics, Papers

Marijuana Benefits in Healthcare Free Sample for Students

Question: Fully Examine arguments both for and against the legalization of Marijuana. Answer: Introduction: Marijuana is obtained from cannabis plant that is found in not only Canada but also over the entire world. It had its origin in Asia and is used by millions of people mainly due to its psychoactive effects. This mainly results in a feeling of euphoria, a sense of well-being, relaxation and intensification of ordinary sensory experiences (Lake Kerr, 2016). It is usually available in the form of dried herbs, oil, concentrates, hash as well as foods and beverages containing extracts of cannabis. In the year 2015 Speech from the throne, Canadian government had taken a very bold decision of legalizing marijuana along with regulating and restricting its access to local people. From that time onwards, there had been huge debates about the various pros and cons of the new law that has been provided by the government. This report will first try to establish the argumentative background that the new law has provided and would establish a particular side of the debate, which would be supported by evidence-based researches. Thesis: Marijuana should be legalized in Canada due to its benefits in healthcare and politics. Argument: Marijuana had been previously added to the Canadas Confidential Restricted Listin the year 1923, which came under the Narcotics Drug Act Amendment Bill. These had been done so due to three important reasons like because until that time, it was not utilized in any medical use treatment in America and there was a lack in the accepted safety especially for patient who are under medical supervision. Moreover, there was also a high potential of individuals abusing Marijuana and becoming marijuana dependent. The critics of the newly passed law states that there are several evidences which state that marijuana smoke consists of about 400 chemicals out of which 50 to 70% are carcinogenic hydrocarbons and therefore rises a high chance of development of cancer (Rhehm, Crepault Fischer, 2016). They have also stated that besides making an individual dependent on it, it also results in respiratory illness, cognitive impairment along with poor motor performance. They also demand that it results i n different sorts of mental illness like depression, anxiety and even psychosis. Even reports suggest that individuals who had regular marijuana from a very tender age of adolescence had experienced consequences, which had harmed their scholastic achievement and increased rate of dropping out of school. However, these claims have been considered old school as modern science has given an outlook of the other surface of the coin. While the compound THC is considered to have a negative impact by many individuals, there have been recent incidences, which had stated that THC has many therapeutic advantages. They provide therapeutic benefits for several medical conditions like severe nausea and vomit that often associate with chemotherapy. They act as healer in cases of poor appetite and significant weight loss, which may be due to any sort of terminal diseases (Hasizadeh, 2016). They are also seen to have positive effects in treating bowel disorders, muscle spasms, severe chronic pain and others. Therefore this feud about the negative and positive effects of marijuana have created a very tensed situation in the governance of respected Justin Treadeu which have made situations very tensed in Canada. Individual position supporting the view: My stand on the acceptance of legalization of marijuana is mainly because of the various positive effects that it is posing on the healthcare of individuals. Marijuana contains components like cannabidol called CBD, which positively impacts the brain without causing a high and tetrahydrocannabinol called THC which has pain relieving properties. Scientists have also found its good effects in treating glaucoma and states that it also helps in reversing the carcinogenic effects of tobacco and thereby improves lung health. It also helps to control epileptic seizures. It has been also found to have positive impacts in healing from seizure disorder like that of Dravets Syndrome (Kalant, 2016). Its components are also found to be effective against cancer metastasis. It decreases anxiety, slows down Alzheimers diseases, eases the pain of multiple sclerosis, muscle spasms, treats inflammatory bowel diseases, relieves arthritis discomfort and maintain the metabolism of the body and innumerable others. Besides, the positive effects in healthcare it would also help in political stability due to decrease in criminal offences while carrying weeds or even when possessing it (Mackay Philips, 2016). By properly marketing it, the nation can also develop economy by imposing taxation on it. It is safer than already legalized drugs and therefore its uses will reduce chances of death due to other more harmful drugs. Risk associated with its abuse is comparatively lower than the other drugs (Fischer, Kuganasen Room, 2015). Conclusion: Therefore, from the entire explanation, it can be seen that if the government legalizes marijuana in such a way, which ensures proper usage, the nation will be in an advantageous position. Setting parameters for accessing it like setting a legal age, properly marketing the product along with proper restriction guidelines, correct taxing and pricing, limitations on quantities provide to personal possession and others, one can assure that marijuana abuse will significantly decrease, replacing it with proper benefits for the health and emotions of persons using them. References: Fischer, B., Kuganesan, S., Room, R. (2015). Medical Marijuana programs: Implications for cannabis control policyObservations from Canada.International Journal of Drug Policy,26(1), 15-19. Hajizadeh, M. (2016). Legalizing and regulating marijuana in Canada: review of potential economic, social, and health impacts.International journal of health policy and management,5(8), 453. Kalant, H. (2016). A critique of cannabis legalization proposals in Canada.International Journal of Drug Policy,34, 5-10. Lake, S., Kerr, T. (2016). The challenges of projecting the public health impacts of marijuana legalization in Canada: Comment on Legalizing and regulating marijuana in Canada: review of potential economic, social, and health impacts..Int J Health Policy Manag,5. MacKay, R., Phillips, K. (2016). The Legal Regulation of Marijuana in Canada and Selected Other Countries. Rehm, J., Crpault, J. F., Fischer, B. (2016). The Devil Is in the Details! On Regulating Cannabis Use in Canada Based on Public Health Criteria; Comment on Legalizing and Regulating Marijuana in Canada: Review of Potential Economic, Social, and Health Impacts.International Journal of Health Policy and Management.

Information On The Career Of Psychology Essays - Applied Psychology

Information On The Career Of Psychology Psychology Job Outlook Employment of psychologists is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2006. More job opportunities will arise in businesses, nonprofit, organizations, and research and computer firms for psychologists working as consultants. Companies will use psychologists' expertise in survey design, analysis, and research to provide marketing evaluation and statistical analysis. Opportunities for people holding doctorates from leading universities in areas with an applied emphasis, such as clinical, counseling, health, and educational psychology, should have particularly good prospects. Psychologists with extensive training in quantitative research methods and computer science may have a competitive edge over applicants without this background. Graduates with a master's degree in psychology are qualified for positions in school and industrial-organization psychology. Graduates of master's degree programs in school psychology should have the best job prospects, as schools expected to increase student counseling and mental health services. Still others may find jobs involving research and data collection and analysis in universities, government, or private companies. Bachelor's degree holders can expect very few opportunities, directly related to psychology. Some may find jobs as assistants in rehabilitation centers, or in other jobs involving data collection and analysis. Those who meet State certification requirements may become high school psychology teachers. Earnings According to 1995 survey by the American Psychological Association, the median salary of psychologists with a doctoral degree and 5 to 9 years of experience was $55,000 in counseling psychology in individual private practice; $ 54,500 in private research organizations; $51,000 as clinical psychologists in public psychiatric hospitals; and $59,000 in school psychology. The median annual salary of master's degree holders was $38,000 in counseling psychology; $43,000 in clinical psychology; $41,500 in research positions; $60,000 in school psychology, and $55,000 in industrial-organizational psychology. Some psychologists have much higher earnings, particularly those in private practice. The Federal Government recognizes education and experience in certifying applicants for entry-level positions. In general, the starting salary for psychologists having a bachelor's degree was about $19,500 a year in 1997; those with superior academic records could begin at $24,200. Psychologists with a master's degree and 1 year of experience could start at $29,600. Psychologists, having a Ph.D. or Psy.D. degree and 1 year of internship could start at $35,800 and some individuals with experience could start at $42,900. Related Occupations Psychologists are trained to conduct research and teach, evaluate, counsel, and advise individuals and groups with special needs. Others who do this kind of work include marketing research analysts, advertising and public relations managers, clinical social workers, physicians, sociologists, clergy, special education teachers, and counselors. Occupations for People with Psychology Majors Surveys of employers and psychology graduates indicate that the jobs obtained by psychology majors with a bachelors degree are most often in social service and business setting, such as: Business: personnel administrator, loan officer, retail sales management, occupational analyst, industrial relations specialist, claims specialist, and marketing representative. Social Services: group home attendant, case worker, probation officer, admissions counselor, occupational therapist, substance abuse counselor, youth counselor, employment counselor, social service aide, public health administrator, parole officer, social-urban planner, community relations officer, affirmative action officer, vocational rehabilitation, and day care center supervisor. What Psychologists Do Psychologists study the human mind and human behavior. Research psychologists investigate the physical, cognitive, emotional, or social aspects of human behavior. Psychologists in applied fields provide mental health care in hospitals, clinics, schools, or private settings. Like other social scientists, psychologists formulate hypotheses and collect data to test their validity. Research methods may vary depending on the topic under study. Psychologists sometimes gather information through controlled laboratory experiments, as well as through administering personality, performance, aptitude, and intelligence tests. Other methods include observation, interviews, questionnaires, clinical studies, and surveys. Health psychologists promote good health through health maintenance counseling programs that are designed to help people achieve goals such as to stop smoking or lose weight. Cognitive psychologists deal with money, thinking, and perceptions. Some conduct research related to computer programming and artificial intelligence. Counseling psychologists use various techniques, including interviewing and testing to advise, on how to deal with problems of everyday living. Developmental psychologists study the physiological development that takes place throughout life. Experimental or research psychologists work in university and private research centers, and in business, nonprofit and governmental organizations.

The Culture and Civilization tradition Essay Example

The Culture and Civilization tradition Essay Example The Culture and Civilization tradition Paper The Culture and Civilization tradition Paper He also sees society as a whole possessing a common basis of human nature (11) however he seams to think that the Barbarians and Philistines have a better developed basis of human nature than the Populace. As john Storey says, Arnold seems to be suggesting that the aristocracy and middle classes are further along the evolutionary continuum than the working class (12) This follows through that everyone has a place in society and that all should look to their betters for guidance. So Arnold, although being the pioneer of modern cultural thinking, seems to have been restricted by tradition and his place in society. Therefore his outlook on todays popular culture simply could not work without some adaptation. He appears to have a fear of the working class and really doesnt try to understand their culture other than from the view that it must be controlled to some extent. If their culture was left to develop alone it would be unchanging; the mass of mankind will never have an ardent zeal (to better themselves), very inadequate ideas will always satisfy them (13) Arnolds view lasted for nearly a century until the 1930s when F. R. Leavis and his wife Queeny Leavis picked up the baton with their publications Mass Civilisation and Minority Culture and Fiction and the reading public. Their ideas were developed in the period between the wars, a time in which they had seen the Wall Street crash in America, along with the building up through the press of movies and film stars, and to some extent American subcultures. This contrasted with the disillusionment of the British public with their government over the handling of the war. There was a general, mainly in the middle classes, worry of society falling into chaos. The public was dissatisfied with the upper classes and religion because of their involvement and leadership during the war a style of command that resulted in many lower class men loosing their lives in the trenches. It was this at time that great developments were made in democracy and a move was made away from the direct rule of the monarchy. It wasnt so much that the working classes were able to get into authority or government, but they did have more of a say over proceedings. Leavisism is based on the idea, created by Arnold that the ruling class minority of society dictates the rituals of the masses. Since the Industrial revolution a wish and an ability of the lower classes to follow their own desires had eroded this dictation. Leavisism believed that steps must be taken to bring them back into the fold. Where Arnold is remorseful of the falling of the feudal system, Queeny is nostalgic for the time when the masses exhibited an unquestioning ascent to authority. (14) She and her husband believed that Arnolds feared anarchy had already come to pass and that through education the lower classes should be instructed out of their subversive culture. Their suggestions for this education included the reading of adverts in terms of them and us, the masses and the educated respectively. F. R. Leavis promoted his own form of education and examination in popular culture with reference to media. He suggested that pupils in the final years before higher education looked at adverts in terms of questions, some of which would be relevant and helpful today, as well as some questions that confirm the status of the elitism. Questions such as What do you think his attitude would be towards us, how would he behave in situations where mob passions run high? (With reference to a Tobacco advert and the subject therein). (15) Q. D. Leavis believed that products of popular culture such as Films and trash novels have an almost hypnotic effect over their audience that people became de-educated by them. They evolve an under culture which detracts from high culture. She therefore sees the modern media as an enemy to the idealist vision of a national culture, where the only option of theatre provided a unilateral version of culture. Leavisism could be said to be anti-capitalist as it dislikes the commercial interests of the 19th and 20th centuries where the rising middle classes were attempting to use the working classes wish to escape by selling them dreams in the form of cultural products. Leavisism tapped into a train of thought of the time which was nostalgic for a more settled time before the rising up of commercial interests, when the working classes were directly answerable to the their land owners. The culture and civilization tradition was a way of looking at the changing world and trying to put it back to how it was. The Culture and Civilization tradition was used as a tool for a nai ve community to try and understand how the media effected society. Arnold developed his theory to explain societies social order and authority, and the importance of cultural subordination to the maintenance of this. Leavisism used is it to explain how media products were contributing to an unsettled system of authority. This way of looking at media studies died out during the 1950s when society as whole changed with wider expectance of new things and the evolution of thought towards individuality. (1) John Storey, Cultural Theory and Popular Culture: an introduction (third edition), Pearson Education, 2001, p. 17 (2) Mathew Arnold, Culture and Anarchy, London: Cambridge University Press, 1960, p. 6 (3) John Storey, Cultural Theory and Popular Culture: an introduction (third edition), Pearson Education, 2001, p. 18. (4) Mathew Arnold, Culture and Anarchy, p. 42 (5) Ibid. p. 89 (6) Ibid. p. 179 (7) Ibid. p. 163 (8) Ibid. p. 164 (9) John Storey, Cultural Theory and Popular Culture, p. 19 (10) Ibid. (11) Mathew Arnold, Culture and Anarchy, p. 105 (12) John Storey, Cultural Theory and Popular Culture, p. 19 (13) Matthew Arnold, poetry and prose, London: Robert Hart Davis, 1954 p. 364 (14) Mathew Arnold, Culture and Anarchy, p. 23 (15) Leavis and Thompson, Culture and Environment Greenwood press, 1977, p. 17.

The Psychology of Deceit

The Psychology of Deceit Hashtag: #TypicalLies The Psychology of Deceit Everyone lies but the rate, objective, and extent of those lies vary among people. Many #TypicalLies are attempts to avoid punishment and they emerged during childhood (â€Å"No mom, I did not eat any cookies†) and continue into adulthood (â€Å"Officer please, I was only driving maybe 1 or 2 miles per hour over the speed limit†). People lie for many different reasons and the most typical include exploratory lying, bragging, make-believe, and cover-up. However, lies that aim to mislead or cover-up are the most serious and become more sophisticated as people get older. The study shows that majority of people lie to cover up past misdeeds or attempts to get out of some unpleasant situation. Some people lie through facial expression such as hiding their anger, fear, sadness, and distress through a smile. In fact, increased blinking, blushing, blanching, and facial sweating are signs of lying. White lies are falsehoods but often not intended to harm anyone. For instance, if your grandmother asks, â€Å"Did I knit your sweater too big?† most us might reply, â€Å"Oh, it’s perfect, I love roomy sweaters† just to avoid hurting her feelings. Similarly, we lie to uplift other people’s spirits through flattery such as â€Å"You look so sexy in that dress† to boost her confidence about the weight loss program. Intentional false statements are a moral issue but most people believe that trivial lies are beneficial. In fact, study shows that academic dishonesty in the form of white lies, altruistic lies, and trick lies are common in schools. Related articles: College Students Why Students Hate Monday? Why Some Students Hate Their Teacher? Students Right to Conscientious Objection   Helping Autistic Students Shine in Mainstream Classroom   White Lies in the Classroom â€Å"Do you understand?†Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ Yes, mam!† Lying is a common occurrence in the classroom, as students tend to avoid social losses by hiding the truth. However, the most typical are lying about his or her understanding of the lesson, the real reason for not doing the assignment, and respond over an irritating reprimand with a poker face. Some students lie to avoid getting into trouble or doing additional tasks thus often responding with a â€Å"Yes Mam!† rather than telling the truth of his or her lack of knowledge. Similarly, it is far more convenient for students to lie about his assignment than to admit that he spent the night out with friends. Most students, regardless of rage over teacher’s reprimand respond with silence and a poker face. This according to the study of students learning and classroom behavior is the negative result of reinforcing classroom teaching with punishment. Punishment produces a rapid and significant behavioral effect and although such reinforcement can result in permanent suppression of potentially injurious behavior, it can lead to aggression, escapes, apathy, abuse, and imitation of those who punished them. An infuriated student with a poker face is trying to escape or avoid the source of punishment by cheating and lying about his true feelings. Similarly, a student saying ridiculous excuses like â€Å"The dog ate my assignment† or copying someone else’s homework is escaping the punishment by lying. Other students’ escape tactics include flattery, crying, and showing remorse. However, it is important to note that aggression becomes a viable alternative to cheating and lying when escape is no longer possible. In fact, aggression becomes all too common and not always directed to the source of injury such as vandalizing valuable school property and shooting rampage in worse cases.

Anti competitive behaviour amongst oligopoly firms and government Essay

Anti competitive behaviour amongst oligopoly firms and government regulations - Essay Example For this study, a brief concept of competition law will be provided followed by discussing some economic factors that enables oligopolistic firms to violate the competition law in the markets. Upon discussing the negative economic consequences of forming oligopoly firms, the role of government regulations on how to control and minimize the negative impact of collusion within the oligopolistic market will be thoroughly discussed. Competition law promotes free trade and healthy competition among the local and international businesses in order to protect the economic welfare of the consumers from businesses that will abuse its market power within a particular industry. (Vedder, 2004; Opi, 2001) As part of promoting free trade in the market, competition law is very much focused on eliminating and reducing the cases of monopolistic competition. Basically, the promotion of a free trade competition enables the consumers to enjoy the privilege of With the purpose of dominating the market, product characteristics dictate the ability of oligopoly firms to enter into collusion. Using the Nash benchmark, the study conducted by Engel (2007) reveals that there is a higher possibility for companies that sell heterogeneous products with few substitutes to collude as compared to businesses that sell homogenous products. It means that businesses that offer heterogeneous products have more competitive advantage or niche as compared to other businesses. The size of the market and the number of manufacturers that produces the same product also affects the ability of oligopolistic firms to enter into collusion. Basically, the bigger the market size in terms of the total number of people within a population would mean that there is a bigger demand for the product. On the other hand, the lesser the number of manufacturers that produces the same type of goods would mean that the supply for the product would be lesser as compared a situation

Social Organization Analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Social Organization Analysis - Essay Example Another fallacy presented is fallacy of appeal to pity. The video tries to encourage people to donate by making them feel sorry for the victims of animal cruelty. The viewers are led to believe that giving financial support to the organization will help promote the plight of the poor animals. The organization may be guilty of using content fallacies. Although it gave information on the number of animals being abused every single hour and the number of animals which were rescued last year, one does not have any way of confirming the said data because the source of the figures were not given. The arguments presented may make us suspicious because the figures could very well be invented just to get a lot of contributions. The fallacies have a strong impact on the aim of the organization to encourage people to make a donation. I think that the fallacies used are very effective into moving the viewers to action by calling right after watching the video. There was even a statement which wa s shown, â€Å"For hundreds of others, help came too late.† The statement used would make viewers react at once; else it would be too late for the â€Å"hundreds† of animals. The impact of this is that there seems to be a sense of urgency in the issue being presented.

Slavery in Colonial Times Essay Example for Free

Slavery in Colonial Times Essay The colonization of North America was fronted by European explorers who discovered the existence of territories in the west. Prior to the colonization of North America, tribes who inhabited the region were in command over their lands and their people. The invasion of European colonizers has eventually brought about radical changes, mainly due to irresolvable conflicts, to the North American tribes’ way of life. Although slavery was notably practiced by European colonizers, native tribes also observed it. Slavery has become one important aspect of the people’s existence as the practice of slavery and servitude was sustained and adapted from the European culture. Slavery and slave trade was significantly practiced during the colonial period and has served a purpose for those who implemented it. In some instances, slaves were traded in order to put an end to the deteriorating population of North American tribes whose members were victimized by the war and also by illnesses brought about by ailments and infections without any known cure. This practice of slavery serves a communal and political purpose as it aims to bring back social order in a tribe. For economic purposes, acquired slaves, most especially those of African descent, were marketed to other slave traders. Moreover, captives were used to work and serve for people in higher classes of society. For others, slave trade was practices in order to fulfill debts or other neglected responsibilities. The concept of slavery being observed during the colonial times is not a big surprise to almost everyone who is aware of the present conditions of society. We have been hearing terminologies such as racism and discrimination, and as far as I know, this present societal problem originated from slavery. Slavery is inhuman and should be abhorred by everyone. I believe that ethnocentrism, or the belief of the superiority of one’s culture, is the main reason for slavery and slave trade during the colonial times. European colonizers made ethnic tribes and groups as slaves due to ethnocentrism. Since then, our society has been facing problems regarding social order and global peace.

Cause and Effect Essay - Emergency Contraception Causes Abortion

Emergency Contraception Causes Abortion      Ã‚  Ã‚   Brown University associate professor of medicine, Ralph Miech, M.D., Ph.D., stated the abortive nature of EC in the Providence Journal on August 3, 1998: "This type of pill causes an abortion. From a pharmacologic perspective, this type of pill should be called an 'abortion-after pill'."    The question must be asked: "How is this contraception?" Women are being falsely led to believe that these pills are contraceptive in nature. But one of their common and intended modes of action is to prevent the development of the embryo, resulting in his or her death.    A major problem in this debate is the manipulation of terms. The FDA, American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG) and abortion advocacy groups long ago endorsed a change in the definitions of "conception" and "pregnancy" to confuse the issue. Instead of equating conception with fertilization, and seeing a woman as pregnant if her body contains a living, developing embryo, they equate "conception" and "pregnancy" with the implantation of the embryo in the uterus 6 to 10 days later. Thus a drug or device that destroys the early embryo or disrupts its development is redefined as "contra-ceptive," even though it is abortifacient in nature.    The new Preven regimen and similar so-called "morning-after" pills, which can actually be taken several days after intercourse, are high doses of ordinary birth control pills containing estrogen and progestin, which have long been known to inhibit pregnancy. In response to years of pressure from some medical and advocacy groups, the FDA recommended six brands of oral contraceptive pills in high doses (Ovral, Lo/Ovral, Nordette, Levlen, Triphasil, and Tri... ...th the endometrium "could explain the majority of cases where pregnancies are prevented by the morning-after pill" (Wilks 154). Without implantation, which occurs about a week after fertilization, the embryo cannot develop and will die.    WORKS CITED    FDA Notice, 62 Fed. Reg. 861 [Feb. 25, 1997]).    Harper, C. and C. Ellertson. "Knowledge and Perceptions of Emergency Contraceptive Pills Among a College-Age Population: A Qualitative Approach." 27 Family Planning Perspectives 149 [July-August 1995].    Stubblefield, P. "Self-Administered Emergency Contraception -- A Second Chance." 339 New England Journal of Medicine 41 [July 2, 1998].    Wilks, J. A Consumer's Guide to the Pill and Other Drugs [1997]. Cites F. Grou and I. Rodrigues, "The morning-after pill: How long after?", 171 Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 1529-34 [1994].